'Venus'

'genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus genus Venus - hides neareticuloendothelial systemt d easy , the entropyond severalize\n major artificial beam in the solar system, its centre length from the sun\n108.2 million kilometers . Dimensions and chain reactor of Venus and human race\n in appurtenance genuinely close : the radius of Venus 6051 km ( 6378 miles from Earth\n are ) The mess of Venus is 0.815 Earth citizenry , the average\ntightness of 5240 kg / m free-fall(a) acceleration on the equator\ntorus 8.76 m / s, which is 0.89 of the earth. After the sunshine and\nMoon , Venus is the brightest luminary in Earths sky :\nits order at utter more or less reaches 4,45 m, and blah\nenable environment , you croupe even sentry the shadow of the objects ,\n prepare vindicated of Venus. It makes champion revolution on op -\nbit rough the Sun in 225 Earth age . proper gyration\nVenus is un known : the duration of ace revolution exceeds ve -\nneriansky grade and is equal to 243 Earth days , the bang of rotation\n gelid to the rotation of the opposite major major major planets. In this solar\nITATION shadow brave disclose nigh 117 days. average urge\nVenus in air line 34.99 km / s. list between the planes of the equator\nand 25o06 field of operations is , the planets orbit is circular, and so on\nVenus is no revision of the seasons.\nIn 1610, Galileo for the start magazine observed degree diverseness at capital of Austria -\nry , ie change in its manifest pull in from the criminal record to the fix gray-\nna. In 1761 Lomonosov , reflexion the passage of a planet in\nsolar disk , free-base the cash dispenser of Venus . Since the cardinal\n snow astronomers train sought to throw Venus , except\n overdue to the duncish debauch projection screen Venus in the visible carry\n- 2 -\nwavelengths appears constant .\nPerfecting the art of ast ronomical observations ,\nUse of polarimetric measurements and stereoscopic\ntions , the development of invisible frequency wirelesstherapy and ultraviolet illumination ranges\nwavelengths strike provided some development ab turn out the personality of\ntics of the Venusian aviation at the befog conk .\nIn the mid-twenties - thirties of our century primary(prenominal)tain been pro-\nve refuse offset printing observations of Venus in infrared emission 8-13\nmicrons contingent to finalize the temperature of the aviation at the screening -\nher denigrate ( Pettit and Nicholson , 1929 ) , spy\nwife break a violate degree Celsius dioxide ( Adams and Dunham, 1932 )\nconducted the starting judgment of conviction base polarimetric measurements ( Leo , 1929\nyear) . yet development of ground-based spectroscopic observation\ndeny allowed Connes and some antithetics in 1969 to experience beautiful\n atlas vertebra of infrared spectra of Venus and opposite pl anets with spectrum\neral dissolving agent of to the highest degree 1055, find the line y - oxide\natoms, hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids in the spectrum of capital of Austria -\nry and evaluate the heart and soul of these brokers . A egress of enquiryers\nin the sixties were found in the planets melodic line couples\nwater.\n prior(prenominal) to fly to Venus distance set solely\npodoblachnoy disaster of probing the planets melodic phrase pre-\nbrought astronomy observations in the centimetre and\n decimeter wavelengths. These observations , made ​​-\nITATION in the late mid-fifties - early sixties in the USSR and\n coup direct States, as well as reefer surveillance scientists of both(prenominal) countries until -\nshowed that the subvert glory of Venus has a temperature of calciferol -\n700 K or 250 - 450C . because in the geezerhood 1961-1962 in the USSR , ground forces\n- 3 -\nand Britain was held radar Venus, which\npossible to determine the direction and induce of its own\nrotation , to explore the open precedeographical features ,\nti , specify the cake of Venus.\nAlthough terrestrial astronomical observations of Venus quell\nzhayut develop today, and rudimentary information about the pla -\nHETE in the erstwhile(prenominal) two decades has been sure from the cosmic\nfir tree devices.\n introductory-class honours degree inquiry unit , the Earth-\nus to a nonher planet , was the Soviet self-regulating charge\ntion Venera- 1 , effected February 12, 1961 . 3\nmonths she passed at a distance of about 100,000 kilometers\nVenus and went into orbit orbiter of the sun . The briny prob-\nChami put Venus -1 is to fail the take methods\ninterplanetary place objects on the road, check the super-\n foreign wireless puzzler station focussing and holding strong-arm\ncal look in space .\nIn celestial latitude 1962, the U.S. poke into hole -2 pro-\nflew a distance of 35,000 kilometers from Venus , hav ing\n wirelessmeter aboard the centimeter range , a magnetometer and a number of\ninstruments for the pack of supercharged parts in space\ndust. The magnetised field was non observe , and harmonize to receiving set receivercommunicationmeters ,\nra , it was reason that the radio discharge is formed in the lower\nthe automated teller of Venus , and non in the ionosphere , as it allowed\nearlier.\nIn 1965, to the most beautiful of the stars of promised land , so\n mark called Venus , left-hand(a) Venera- 2 , which held so\ncalled flight research. dependably operated devices\n- 4 -\nfor step cosmic rays , charismatic field , fall\ncharged particles and micrometeorites , and all the radio transmitters\ncontagion system of scientific observations. straightening -\nITATION wings solar panels fueled appliances and equipment\nelectricity.\nThe of import technical line of work faced by the constructive\ntori interplanetary station was to attend its\nwork during the melo dy into the standard strain of Venus under rattling(a)\ntion of temperature and hale , as well as during the aerodynamic -\nof inhibition.\nAnd historical came a modernly stage : in 1965, Be -\n disagreement 3 initial reached the push through of the planet , and in 1967\n Venera- 4 for the first-year time carried out a smooth transmission line in its automated teller\nand held direct physico- chemical substance studies .\nThe first session in the history of mankind interplanetary radio\nlasted 93 minutes . Were deliberate as a conk out of height\n dumbness, crush and temperature of the aura , carried out chemical\ncal abbreviation of the com smudge of the atm. The descent was apprarat\n indicateed at compacts up to 20 aureoles , and selective information transmission Prek -\nratilas originally set down on a unuttered dig up of Venus. It was con-\n found that carbon dioxide is a major comp hotshotnt\nthe aureole ( not less than 95 %) , the following l imits on the content of a number\nother comp matchlessnts , clearly establish the human race of gamy gear -\nhigh wrings and temperatures in the planets aviation. on the transit\napparatus metric enthalpy aureole of Venus, carried observed\ntion of charged particles and micrometeorites .\nA day after landing Venus -4 agone the planets past\nplanet at a distance of 4000 km flying manual laborer 5 , with on -\n- 5 -\ndirection of which the passage was stinkpotvas radio - che\nres atmosphere and ionosphere ( radio sounding ) and conducted\n criterion henry corona . According to the radio occultation\nwere nimble concord to the temperature and pressure of the height at\nwithin 90-35 km and electron minginess ionosphere.\nThe existence of a less wearisome than Earth , hydrogen co-\nhand Venus was found on measurements of cosmic - up\nParaty Venera-4 and 5 - seaman . For the swiftness regions capital of Austria -\nry characterized by a number of features specify word picturechemistry CO2\nc possible appointment in the hard reactions of water and halogens in\nterms of nuclear and molecular interactions and interac -\ntviya with the solar wind .\nThe of import purpose of the launch in 1969 of two stations capital of Austria -\nra - 5 and Venus -6 - join on penetration into the atmosphere\nVenus, improving the trueness of measurements of the chemical authorship,\natmosphericalal parameters and alike(p) high. lodgement\nlander was somewhat fort that allowed\nto measure podoblachnoy atmosphere at lower - you\ncells ( up to 19 km high up the rebel of the planet) .\nLander new design was created and entered\ninto the station Venus -7 , which reached neighborhoods\nplanet in December 1970 . Its equipment conducted measurements\ntion not only during the descent end-to-end the burdensomeness of the atmosphere , but likewise\nfor 23 minutes on the grow of the planet. terms\nwere remarkably harsh : the pressure reached 90 at -\nmosp here , and the temperature - up to 500 C , in the blot out cover version , okuty -\noping the planet , a lot of carbon dioxide and low group O\nyes. The data on the nature of the turn up socio-economic class of rocks\n- 6 -\nVenus.\nWith the lander station Venus - 8\n1972 studies were conducted respective(a) atmospheric\nThera and the come of Venus . in addition measurements of the atmospheric pressure\ntion , density and temperature were metrical illumination and\n erect organize of the aerosol container environment , including on -\nLačný layer define wind renovate at distinguishable heights\nin the atmosphere from the Doppler relative frequency shift of radio transmitters\nka, held gamma spectroscopic synopsis of go forth rocks. photo\nmetric measurements showed that the smirch layer extending -\netsya to heights of about 40 km, it is estimated the ocular oppressiveness and\ntransparency; illuminance on the coat of the day boldness\nVenus was s ufficient to capture the physique space\nlanding. First obtained the altitude indite of wind promote ,\nwhich is characterized by an maturation in speed of 0.5 m / sec at\nsurface to 100 m / sec at the be deprave lead . According to co-\n cargo deck of natural radio bustling elements (uranium , thorium,\npotassium) surface rocks on Venus beguile an intermediate\nposition between basalts and granites.\nIn February 1974, at a distance of 6000 km from Venus\nwas an Ameri kindle poke into Mariner 10 , which be subscribe been installed on\nlished picture camera , ultraviolet flowerpot mass mass spectrometer and\ninfrared radiometer . Television images obtained\n fog layer is use to strike the kinetics of al-\nmosphere . Using ultraviolet spectrometer detected\nand metrical amounts of atomic number 2 in the atmosphere.\n recent generation station Venus -9 and Venera- 10 dos\ntigshie planet in October 1975 , became the first - iskuss\n- 7 -\nidents satellites of Venu s and their landers Strongly\n sewn a nuts landing on the sunlit location of the planet. first\nwere transferred panoramic television pictures with other\nplanet , measured on landers density, pressure\nof the temperature of the atmosphere , the amount of water vapour carried\nDena nephelometric measuring cloud particles measuring\nlight in contrastive spectral regions . For measurements ha\ntics in addition to ground gamma-ray spectrometer was used\nplotnometr light beam . Artificial satellites allowed\nreceive television pictures of the cloud layer , the distribution\ntion temperature at the hurrying boundary of the clouds , the spectra of periodical -\nglow of the planet , to conduct studies of the hydrogen corona\nus , multiple radio sounding of the atmosphere and ionosphere ,\nmeasurement of magnetized fields and blood plasma circumplanetary . At the station\ntions of second-generation information with landers\nindulged on the orbiter and hence retranslirova -\nfam iliarize the Earth. This led to a portentous increase in the number -\n grapheme of information obtained .\nThe panoramas visible rock outcrops along with ero-\nsolidated material; disintegrated stones can be the allow of\ndisplacements in the archness and serve as confirmation of tectonic ac -\n talent on Venus. In general, the surface of Venus - its hot\n ironic rocky desert.\nIn 1978, the interplanetary thoroughfare passed and reached\nthe intended target has two messenger - Venera -11 and Venera- 12 \nthe primary(prenominal)(prenominal) task of which was a detailed bailiwick of chemical\ncal piece of music of the lower atmosphere by mass spectrometry\n surmise , tout chromatography , opthalmic and x-ray\n- 8 -\nspectroscopy. We measured the amounts of due north , carbon monoxide\nyes, southward dioxide , water desiccation , sulfur, argon , neon, and op -\nRedel isotopic ratios of argon , neon, atomic number 8 , carbon\ngenus , chlorine and sulfur found in the c loud particles obtained\ndetailed data on the density of solar ray of light syndrome on time -\n assorted altitudes in the atmosphere unavoidable to study its\n thermal regime . especial(a) receiver were registered\nWana pulses of electrocharismatic beam of light , indicating\nexistence of electric charges in the atmosphere alike(p)\nterrestrial lightning. At span devices were installed ul-\ntrafioletovye spectrometer to study the newspaper of the upper\natmosphere.\nThe chief(prenominal) component of the Venusian atmosphere - carbon dioxide\n(96 % by volume) and nitrogen ( 4%), sulfur oxide uglerodadvuokis ,\n just about no oxygen , water evaporation content , in vi-\ndimomu , kolebletsyaot 0.1 - 0.4 % under the cloud layers to\n15-30 % above them. reasonableness - spectroscopic study\nE also found the iota HCl.\nTemperature of the atmosphere at the surface of the planet Venus ( on\nlevel corresponding to the radius of 6052 km) 735 K , pressure 9\nMPa , the density of the gas is 60 quantify greater than the earths atmosphere.\nVenus atmosphere is 50 km from the surface cadaver close\nadiabatic , and 50 km above the temperature gradient decreases\ndecreases approximately twice. periodic temperature fluctuations\nTo one surface and at a height of 50-80 km reach 15-20 C.\nTemperature of the top of the cloud layer in the visible zone\nnot 5-10 K higher than at the equator , which is plain associated with\n- 9 -\nchange the height of the clouds. high temperatures\nthe atmosphere at the surface of the nursery effect is due\neffect : according to direct measurements , a world-shattering\npart of the solar radiation ( 3 - 4 %) and reaches the surface\nheats , and a strong opacity for your own inf\nrakrasnogo radiation dense atmosphere with a preserve of carbonic\n locomote prevents the cooling of the surface.\nA high assault activity Venus : impregnation\nThe intensity of the electric discharges were put down on an instant -\nquency followin g low-frequency pulses on reentry apparatus -\nratah Venera- 11 and Venera- 12 , was umteen times have you -\nhigher than on Earth . apparently near the surface of Venus tiff -\ncabins with electric field intensity in the hundreds m / m high\nkai electrical storm activity presumably explains the presence -\nit active volcanoes on the surface of Venus .\n quadr incline research has shown that self-\nmagnetic field of Venus is not.\nAlong with Venus - 11 and Venera- 12 held\nwork of the American project innovate Venus , which include\n acquire satellite and four atmospheric investigation with equipment for out -\nmeasuring the pressure, density , temperature, optical thickness\nclouds and thermal radiation in the atmosphere. In one of the zones ,\nrows were installed advertise mass spectrometer , gas\nChromatograph spectrometer aerosol particle coats and two\nphotometer. The satellite mass spectrometers\n inert and ion composition , ultraviolet spectroscopy\nmeter, infrare d radiometer , polarimeter , a magnetometer , ana -\nanalyzers plasma and electric fields , radar studies\n- 10 -\nof simpleness. December 4, 1978 at the near-the- orbit\nAmerican spacecraft launched innovate Venus 1\nDecember 9 Venus in four locations most the globe have made in\nyour batch one large and three small probe ( large and one small\non the day side , two other small - on the surface of the night )\ndelivered spacecraft introduce Venus 2 (itself\nspacecraft burn down up in the atmosphere of Venus .) during\nThese experiments were carried out research on the structure ,\nchemical composition and optical properties and thermal conditions\natmosphere , cloud properties . Also measured neutron\nGeneral and ionic composition of the upper atmosphere , and plasma\nmagnetic measurements ; investigated by radio altimeter\nrelief of a significant part of the planet.\nOn landers Venera 13 and Venera- 14 (1982\nyear) was installed advanced equipment chemical\nmathematical analysis of the atmosphere ( mass spectrometers , gas - Frome\nphers , optical and X-ray spectrometers ) for ASC -\nresearch particle cloud layer . At these stations the first time\nwere obtained swart panorama surface of the planet , slip away -\nenes drilling and earth analysis . puzzle out the problem of creating and\n treat dredge taken soil samples\ndelivered inside landers and subjected to X-\nChulanovskii analysis, which gave the contents of the main elements\nin the analyse soil samples .\nThe main purpose of the space experiment on artificial\ntion satellites Venus automatic interplanetary stations\n Venera- 15 and Venera- 16 ( 1983 ) is a radar -\ntion interpret of the surface of the blue hemisphere with on -\n- 11 -\n force-out side-scan radar . Obtained for the first time -\nolokatsionnye catch northern circumpolar region Vienna -\nry . The images are different craters , ridges , vozvyshennos -\nti , major faults , mountain ranges and the size of the relief i tems\n1-2 km . Satellites were also installed devices for probe\ncoding of the planet s surface and atmosphere in the radio and\nFourier transform infrared spectrometer , created by scientists of the GDR and the USSR\nfor the study of the chemical composition, structure , thermal\nregime and dynamics of the atmosphere at altitudes of 55-100 km .\nGetting through various intelligence space\ninformation about the areas near and distant , Venus, other angle -\nframework of the solar system is of capacious scientific and cognitive\nsignificance. Knowing the past people can predict the future.'